Articles

Updated November 1, 2026

Software plays a central role in all the internet-connected devices we use, including computers and smart devices such as smartphones, tablets, and smart TVs.

The software on these devices consists of an operating system that controls how the device works (such as Windows, Linux, Android, and iOS), as well as applications designed to run on that operating system.

In today’s connected world, software is constantly changing, and security vulnerabilities can be discovered over time that attackers may exploit. Outdated software can therefore become a security risk.

A software vulnerability is a security weakness or flaw in software. An attacker may exploit such a vulnerability, for example, to gain access to a system or data, execute malicious code, or cause a system to malfunction.

For this reason, keeping your operating system and applications up to date is extremely important for maintaining good security.

Enable automatic operating system and application updates whenever possible. If automatic updates are not enabled, check regularly for available updates and install them as soon as possible.

Updates help improve security and protect your privacy, but they can also improve system stability, fix software bugs, and improve compatibility. On smartphones, updates can also improve device performance and resource efficiency and, in some cases, help improve battery life.

In short, updates are important because they can patch security vulnerabilities, fix problems with operating systems and applications, and help protect your personal data.

Updated November 1, 2026

A good password has at least the following characteristics:

• The password is long enough: Aim for at least 16 characters. The longer the password, the harder it generally is to guess or crack.
• The password uses different types of characters: For randomly generated passwords, it is a good idea to use lowercase and uppercase letters, numbers, and special characters. This increases the number of possible combinations an attacker would have to try. However, using all of these character types does not by itself make a password strong — length, randomness, and uniqueness are more important.
• The password is unique: Use a different password for every account. Never reuse the same password across multiple services. Do not share your passwords with anyone else.
• The password is difficult to guess: Do not use easily guessed information such as your name, date of birth, or other personal information in your passwords. Also avoid common and easily guessed passwords.
• Consider using passphrases when you need to remember a password: A long and difficult-to-guess passphrase made up of several words can be easier to remember than a single complex password.
• Use a password manager: A dedicated password manager can generate long, random passwords and store them securely, so you do not have to remember every password yourself. Password managers are typically protected with a master password and, depending on the service, may also support fingerprint authentication or another strong authentication method.

Built-in password managers in web browsers are also a better option than reusing passwords or storing them, for example, on paper or in an unprotected file. However, a dedicated password manager will generally offer more features for managing and using passwords across different devices.

Updated November 2, 2026

A strong and unique password reduces the risk of account compromise, but it is not enough on its own to protect your account. Your password can end up in the wrong hands, for example as a result of phishing, a data breach, or malware.

• Phishing: You may be tricked into entering your password on a fake website that looks legitimate.
• Data breaches: Information and passwords stored by a service may be exposed as a result of a data breach. The same password may also put your other accounts at risk if you have reused it elsewhere.
• Malware: Some types of malware can, for example, attempt to steal your login credentials.

Multi-factor authentication (MFA) adds an extra layer of security to the login process. Even if your password falls into the wrong hands, an attacker may not be able to access your account without the additional authentication.

Authentication factors can be divided into three main categories:

• Something you know: such as a password or PIN
• Something you have: such as a smartphone or physical security key
• Something you are: such as a fingerprint or facial recognition

MFA means that at least two different authentication factors are used when logging in.

For example:

• Password + code sent by text message
• Password + code from an authenticator app
• Password + physical security key
• PIN + fingerprint or facial recognition

Enable multi-factor authentication whenever a service offers it. It is particularly important for protecting email, social media, cloud services, and other important user accounts.

However, not all MFA methods provide the same level of security. Authentication codes sent by text message are generally considered a weaker option than an authenticator app or a physical security key. Text messages are vulnerable to threats such as SIM swapping.

An authenticator app, such as Google Authenticator or Proton Authenticator, is generally a more secure option. A physical security key provides an even stronger level of protection, particularly against phishing.

If several options are available, choose the strongest authentication method offered by the service. The most important thing, however, is to enable MFA — even a weaker form of MFA is generally better than using a password alone.

Updated: 11 November 2026

Yes—passkeys have already begun to replace passwords, either partially or entirely, because they are both easier to use and more secure. Major technology companies such as Apple, Google, and Microsoft already support passkeys for their accounts, either as an alternative to passwords or as a complete replacement. Support for passkeys continues to expand as more websites and online services adopt this modern authentication method.

A passkey is a modern, passwordless way to sign in to online accounts and websites. Instead of relying on a password that you must create and remember, passkeys use public-key cryptography (also known as asymmetric authentication) to verify your identity securely.

Passkeys are based on a pair of cryptographic keys:

• A private key, which never leaves your device.
• A public key, which is stored by the online service.

Because the private key remains securely on your device, it cannot be stolen in a server-side data breach or intercepted during the login process.

How Does a Passkey Work?

When you create and use a passkey, the authentication process works as follows:

1. Your device generates a unique pair of cryptographic keys: a public key and a private key.
2. The public key is securely stored by the website or online service.
3. The private key remains securely stored on your device and is never shared.
4. When you sign in, the website sends your device a unique, randomly generated challenge.
5. Your device uses the private key to digitally sign this challenge.
6. The signed response is sent back to the website.
7. The website verifies the signature using your stored public key.
8. If the signature is valid, your identity is confirmed and you are securely signed in.

Because the private key never leaves your device, there is no password for attackers to steal, guess, or trick you into revealing through phishing attacks. This makes passkeys one of the most secure and user-friendly authentication methods available today, and they are expected to play a major role in the future of online account security.

In other words, the user and the online service never share a common password. Since there is no password to steal or reveal, passkeys are inherently resistant to phishing attacks. Even if an attacker creates a convincing fake login page, there is no password for the user to enter, making traditional phishing techniques ineffective.

To use a passkey, your device—such as a smartphone, tablet, or computer—must be protected by at least one of the following authentication methods:

• Fingerprint recognition
• Facial recognition
• A device PIN

These authentication methods are used to unlock your device and authorize the use of the private key stored on it. Once your identity has been verified, the device uses the passkey to securely sign you in to the account without requiring a password.

This means you no longer need to remember or type complex passwords. Instead, you simply unlock your device using the same method you already use every day, while benefiting from a significantly higher level of security.

26 October 2026

1. Introduction

When creating an account for a new online service, you may be offered several ways to sign in. You can create a separate account with the service, use an existing account from a provider such as Google, Apple, or Microsoft, or sign in using your phone number.

These options can be convenient, but they have different security and privacy implications. Which option should you choose?

This article looks at the advantages and risks of these login methods, what you should consider before choosing one, and how good security practices can help protect your accounts.

At the end of the article, IT-Digiturva will give its recommendation on these login methods.

2. What Happens When You Choose Each Option?

When signing up for a new online service, you may have several options.

Create a separate account

You create an account directly with the service and choose a password for it. This can be a secure option when you use a strong and unique password and enable security features such as MFA or a passkey.

Use an existing account

You can use an existing account from a provider such as Google, Apple, or Microsoft. The provider confirms your identity to the new service, so you normally do not need to create another password.

The new service does not normally receive your existing account password. Instead, your new account is linked to the existing account so you can use it to sign in later.

Use a phone number

Some services let you create an account using your phone number. The service sends a temporary verification code, usually by SMS. Entering the code confirms that you have access to that phone number.

What information is shared?

The information shared depends on the login method and the service. An existing account may provide information such as your name, email address, or a unique account identifier. With phone-number login, your phone number is normally associated with the account.

What happens to the password?

With a separate account, you create a new password for the service.

With an existing account, you normally use the existing account to sign in instead of creating another password.

With phone-number login, you normally use a temporary verification code instead of a password.

3. What Are the Security Benefits?

Using an existing account can be easy and fast. You also have fewer passwords to remember, which can reduce the temptation to reuse the same password on different services. Password reuse is a common security problem, even though passwords should always be unique.

Another benefit is that if your existing account is well protected with good security practices, such as MFA or a passkey, you can also benefit from these protections when using it to sign in to another service.

Using an existing account can therefore be a reasonable choice when you need an account for a less important service or only expect to use it occasionally.

However, creating a separate account can also be secure. The important thing is to use good security practices, such as a strong and unique password and MFA or a passkey when available.

In other words, the security of the login method depends not only on which option you choose, but also on how well you protect it.

4. What Are the Security Risks?

Using an existing account to access other services also has some risks.

One account can give access to many services

If you use the same main account to sign in to several services, that account becomes very important. If someone gains access to it, services where you use that account for login may also be at risk.

The impact can be direct if the compromised account can be used to sign in directly to another service. There can also be an indirect impact if losing or compromising the main account makes it difficult to recover access to other services.

Losing access to your main account

If you lose access to your main account, you may also lose the ability to sign in to services where you used that account. This is why it is important to keep the main account secure and have working recovery options.

Risks with phone numbers and SMS codes

Phone-number login also has risks. Your mobile number is assigned to your mobile subscription. The SIM card or eSIM connects that number to your mobile network and allows you to receive calls and SMS messages on your phone.

When you use your phone number to log in, the service sends a temporary verification code to that number, usually by SMS. Entering the code proves that you currently have access to the number.

SMS verification codes can be targeted by phishing, where someone tries to trick you into giving them the code.

There is also a risk of SIM swapping, where an attacker gets your mobile number transferred to another SIM card. They can then receive SMS messages sent to your number.

Weak security on the main account

If your main account is poorly protected, the risks are greater when it is used to access many other services. Using a weak or reused password, for example, can make the main account easier to compromise.

The more services depend on one account or phone number, the more important it is to protect it properly.

5. What About Privacy?

Security is not the only thing to consider. Privacy is also important when choosing how to sign in.

What information is shared?

When you use an existing account to sign in to a new service, some information from that account may be shared with the service. This can include your name, email address, profile picture, or another account identifier, depending on the provider, the service, and your settings.

What does the service know about you?

The new service will have information about the account you create and how you use that service. Check what information the service asks for and what it says about how your data is used.

What does the existing account provider know?

When you use an existing account to sign in to another service, the provider may know which services you use its login service with. This information may be used in different ways, depending on the provider’s privacy policy and settings. For example, information about your activity may be used for personalisation or advertising.

Think before you sign in

Before choosing a login method, consider what information you are sharing with the service and what information your existing account provider may learn about your activity.

Convenience is useful, but it is worth understanding the privacy trade-off as well.

6. Protect the Account or Phone Number You Use to Sign In

If you use an existing account or your phone number to sign in to other services, protecting the account or phone number is especially important.

Protect your account

If you use an existing account to sign in:

• Use MFA or a passkey when available.
• If you use a password, make sure it is strong and unique. Do not reuse it on other services.
• Keep your recovery options up to date and secure.
• Review connected apps and devices regularly and remove anything you no longer use or do not recognize.

Protect your phone number

The phone number itself cannot be protected with a password. Instead, you need to protect the things that control access to it, such as your mobile subscription, SIM card or eSIM, and phone.

• Protect your mobile subscription with the security features provided by your mobile operator.
• Protect your SIM card or eSIM and your phone with a PIN or other available security features.
• Be careful with SMS verification codes and never share them with someone who asks for them unexpectedly.
• Be aware of SIM-swapping risks.
• Keep your phone and its security settings up to date.

Good protection of the account or phone number you use for login helps reduce the risks to services that depend on it.

7. What If You Lose Access?

It is important to think about what happens if you lose access to the account or phone number you use to sign in.

If you lose access to your main provider account, you may also have problems accessing services where you used that account to sign in.

If you lose or change your phone number, services that use that number for login or recovery may also become difficult to access.

Recovering access to a service account

Before you need to recover an account, check how the service allows you to regain access if you cannot sign in. Depending on the service, recovery may use a recovery email address, phone number, backup codes, or another recovery method.

A simple approach is:

1. Check the recovery options available for the service account.
2. Add and verify your recovery information.
3. Keep your recovery information up to date.
4. Make sure you can access your recovery methods if your usual login method is unavailable.
5. If you lose access, use the service’s official account recovery process.

Good recovery options are an important part of account security and should be considered when choosing a login method.

8. Which Login Method Should You Choose? — IT-Digiturva Recommendation

There is no single best login method for every situation. The choice depends on how important the account is and how often you use it.

For less important or occasional services

Using a well-protected existing account can be a convenient choice. Make sure it is protected with good security practices, such as MFA or a passkey.

For important and frequently used accounts

IT-Digiturva recommends creating a separate account directly with the service instead of signing in through another provider’s account.

A separate account has its own login method, such as a unique password or a passkey. Protect it properly and keep its recovery options up to date.

This helps keep the service independent of your main account and can reduce the impact of losing access to that account.

What about phone-number login?

Phone-number login can be convenient, but it depends on your phone number and often on SMS messages. For important accounts, IT-Digiturva recommends a separate account rather than relying only on a phone number.

Whatever method you choose, use good security practices and make sure you can recover access to your account if something goes wrong.

9. Conclusion

There is no single best login method for everyone. Each option has its advantages and risks, so consider both convenience and security when choosing how to create an account.

Whatever method you choose, good security practices are essential. Protect your accounts, use MFA or passkeys when available, and make sure you can recover access if something goes wrong.

The most important thing is not only which login method you choose, but how well you protect it.

05 October 2026

Certificates are the foundation of secure communication on the internet and within internal networks. They identify systems, services, users, and devices, establishing the trust required for secure interactions.

This guide explains how certificates and key pairs work, the role of Certificate Signing Requests (CSRs), the chain of trust, and how to navigate common file formats like .crt, .key, .pem, and .pfx.

What is a Certificate?

A digital certificate is the digital equivalent of a passport or identity document.

While a passport identifies you in the physical world, a certificate identifies a system, service, user, or device in the digital world. It contains identity information that other systems can inspect and verify.

Crucially, a certificate also contains a public key, which acts as the public face of that digital identity. For example, a certificate might assert:

“This public key belongs to api.example.com.”

To ensure the certificate is legitimate, the Certificate Authority (CA) performs validation and signs the certificate—much like a trusted passport office issues and authenticates a physical passport.

Core Concepts

• Certificate: The digital identity document containing identity information and a public key.
• Public Key: The public half of the cryptographic identity, shared freely.
• Private Key: The secret proof that the holder controls the corresponding public key. It is never shared.
• CA Signature: The trusted signature that allows clients to verify that the certificate was issued by the CA and has not been altered.

Certificates are commonly used for HTTPS/TLS, server/client authentication, secure service-to-service communication, and Mutual TLS (mTLS).

Public and Private Keys

Certificates rely on public-key cryptography. A cryptographic key pair consists of two mathematically related keys: one public and one private. The private key cannot feasibly be derived from the public key.

• The Public Key: Embedded within the certificate and distributed to anyone. Other systems use it for cryptographic operations such as verifying digital signatures or establishing secure connections.
• The Private Key: Kept strictly secret. It is used for cryptographic operations such as creating digital signatures and proving possession of the corresponding private key.

Key Takeaway: The certificate tells the world who you claim to be and provides your public key. Your private key provides the cryptographic proof that you actually control that identity.

The Certificate Signing Request (CSR)

Before a CA issues a certificate, you must request one via a Certificate Signing Request (CSR).

A CSR packages your requested identity information (e.g., domain name, organization) and your public key. You then digitally sign the CSR with your private key.

The private key itself is never included in the CSR. The signature simply proves to the CA that you possess the private key associated with the public key you are submitting. The CA then validates the request and determines what identity information is included in the issued certificate.

The Issuance Process

1. Generate Key Pair — Creates the private and public keys

You generate a private key (server.key) and its corresponding public key.

openssl genrsa -out server.key 2048

2. Generate CSR — Packages the public key and identity details

You package the public key and identity information into a CSR (server.csr) and sign it with your private key.

openssl req -new -key server.key -out server.csr

3. Submit to CA — Private key remains local

You submit server.csr to a Certificate Authority. The private key stays securely on your system.

4. Validation & Issuance — CA issues the signed certificate

The CA validates the request and, if approved, issues your final certificate (server.crt).

The Chain of Trust

A server rarely presents just a single certificate. Because operating systems and browsers trust a limited set of Root CA certificates, Intermediate CAs are used to bridge the gap.

┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                         Root CA                             │
│     Trusted; stored locally in OS / browser trust store    │
└──────────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────┘
                               │ signs
                               ▼
┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                    Intermediate CA                          │
│           Issued by root; signs end-entity certs            │
└──────────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────┘
                               │ signs
                               ▼
┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                  End-Entity Certificate                     │
│                Your server certificate: server.crt          │
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

To prove its identity, a server typically presents a certificate chain containing its end-entity certificate and any required intermediate certificates.

If a required intermediate is missing, clients may be unable to build the chain of trust and may report a certificate validation error.

In file terms, a chain is usually delivered as a single concatenated file:

fullchain.pem
(End-entity certificate + Intermediate certificates)

Common Certificate File Formats

File extensions in cryptography are largely conventions. A .pem file can hold a certificate or a private key, and a .crt file can be encoded as text (PEM) or binary (DER). The extension alone does not reliably tell you what the file contains.

Always inspect the file contents if you are unsure.

1. .crt / .cer — Certificate

Normally contains the certificate details:

• Subject
• Public key
• Issuer
• Validity period
• CA signature

A certificate file normally does not contain the private key.

2. .key — Private Key

Contains your sensitive private key. If an attacker gains access to this file, they may be able to impersonate your server or otherwise misuse its cryptographic identity.

Warning: Treat .key files as highly sensitive secrets. Never transmit private keys over unencrypted channels or commit them to version control.

3. .pem — Privacy-Enhanced Mail

PEM is a text-based encoding convention commonly used for cryptographic material. It typically contains Base64-encoded data surrounded by ASCII BEGIN/END markers.

A single .pem file can contain a certificate, a private key, or an entire certificate chain.

Certificate PEM Example:

-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
MIIE...[Base64 encoded data]...
-----END CERTIFICATE-----

Private Key PEM Example:

-----BEGIN PRIVATE KEY-----
MIIE...[Base64 encoded data]...
-----END PRIVATE KEY-----

DER vs. PEM:

DER is a binary encoding. PEM commonly contains Base64-encoded DER data wrapped in BEGIN/END markers.

If you open a cryptographic file in a text editor and see raw binary data instead of readable text with BEGIN/END markers, it may be DER-encoded.

4. .pfx / .p12 — PKCS#12

A PKCS#12 archive is a container that can hold multiple cryptographic objects—typically a certificate, private key, and certificate chain—in a single file.

It is commonly password-protected and is widely used in Windows/IIS environments and for securely transporting key pairs.

Extracting Data from a .pfx File via OpenSSL

Extract the certificate only:

openssl pkcs12 -in server.pfx -clcerts -nokeys -out certificate.pem

Extract an unencrypted private key:

openssl pkcs12 -in server.pfx -nocerts -nodes -out private-key.key

Note: Newer versions of OpenSSL use -noenc instead of -nodes.

Be extremely careful when extracting an unencrypted private key.

Inspecting Certificate Files with OpenSSL

When you receive a certificate-related file and are unsure what it contains, OpenSSL can help you inspect it safely.

Inspect a certificate:

openssl x509 -in certificate.pem -text -noout

This displays information such as the subject, issuer, validity period, public key, and extensions without modifying the file.

Inspect a private key:

openssl pkey -in private-key.pem -text -noout

This displays information about the private key. Be careful when handling the output because it can contain sensitive key material.

For PKCS#12 files such as .pfx or .p12, you can inspect the archive without extracting its contents:

openssl pkcs12 -in server.pfx -info -noout

These commands are useful when filenames or extensions are ambiguous and you need to determine what cryptographic material a file actually contains.

Internal CAs and Self-Signed Certificates

Not all certificates come from public CAs.

• Self-Signed Certificates: The certificate is signed by its own private key rather than a CA. Browsers and other clients will generally not trust it unless it has been explicitly added to a trust store. These are commonly used for local development, testing, labs, and other controlled environments.
• Internal (Private) CAs: Organizations can create private Root CAs to secure internal traffic, Kubernetes clusters, VPNs, and other internal services. The organization distributes the Internal Root CA to managed endpoints, enabling those systems to trust certificates issued by the internal CA.

Mutual TLS (mTLS)

Standard TLS provides one-way authentication: the client verifies the server.

In Mutual TLS (mTLS), authentication can happen in both directions.

Client                                  Server
  │                                       │
  │─────── 1. Connects & requests TLS ───>│
  │                                       │
  │<────── 2. Sends Server Certificate ───│
  │       (Client verifies Server)        │
  │                                       │
  │<────── 3. Requests Client Cert ───────│
  │                                       │
  │─────── 4. Sends Client Certificate ──>│
  │       (Server verifies Client)        │
  │                                       │
  │<────── 5. Server verifies Client ─────│
  │       (TLS connection established)    │

mTLS allows services to authenticate clients and, together with authorization rules, restrict connections to approved clients.

It is commonly used in Zero Trust architectures and service meshes.

Automation and Lifecycles

Certificates expire. Historically, certificates often remained valid for multiple years. Today, the industry is increasingly moving toward shorter-lived certificates, with 90-day certificates common in automated public-CA workflows. This does not mean that every certificate has a 90-day lifetime; validity depends on the CA, certificate type, and issuance policy.

This shift makes manual renewal increasingly impractical.

Protocols such as ACME—used by Let’s Encrypt and tools such as cert-manager—enable automated certificate issuance and renewal, including domain validation and obtaining replacement certificates before expiration.

Tools such as cert-manager can also automate key and CSR generation and certificate deployment.

Quick Reference Cheat Sheet

Updated 02 October 2026

Most people encounter digital certificates without realizing it when they use a website over HTTPS.

When you see an address such as:

https://example.com

the https part indicates that HTTP is being transported over TLS (Transport Layer Security).

A simple way to think about the relationship is:

HTTPS
  ↓
HTTP over TLS
  ↓
TLS handshake
  ↓
Server authentication
+
Key establishment
  ↓
Secure communication

The important distinction is:

• HTTPS is HTTP communication protected by TLS.
• TLS is the protocol that establishes and protects the secure connection.
• A certificate helps authenticate the identity of the server.
• Session keys established during the TLS handshake protect the actual communication.

A practical example

Suppose you visit:

https://example.com

Your browser does not simply assume that the server really is example.com.

Very roughly, the process looks like this:

1. Browser connects to example.com
              ↓
2. Server presents its certificate
              ↓
3. Browser validates the certificate
              ↓
4. TLS handshake establishes cryptographic keys
              ↓
5. HTTPS communication begins

The certificate helps the browser verify that the server is presenting a certificate valid for the requested domain and that the certificate chain can be validated to a trusted Certificate Authority (CA).

TLS then performs the cryptographic operations needed to authenticate the server and establish the keys used to protect the connection.

You can see certificate information yourself in most browsers by selecting the site information icon next to an HTTPS address and viewing the connection or certificate details.

You will typically find information such as:

• The certificate’s domain names
• The issuer
• The validity period
• Public-key information
• The certificate chain

What does TLS do?

TLS is a security protocol that helps establish a secure connection between a client and a server.

For example, when your browser connects to a website, TLS, together with certificate validation, helps provide:

• Server authentication — the client can verify the identity represented by the server’s certificate
• Confidentiality — transmitted data is protected against unauthorized reading
• Integrity — modifications to the transmitted data can be detected

The process involves several cryptographic operations.

One important part is the digital certificate presented by the server. The certificate provides information that allows the client to authenticate the server during the TLS handshake.

After the handshake, TLS uses session keys to protect the HTTP data exchanged between the browser and server.

What is the certificate used for?

At the most basic level, a certificate helps your browser check the identity of the server.

A server certificate contains information about the server’s identity, such as its domain name, and includes the server’s public key.

The certificate is digitally signed by a Certificate Authority (CA). This allows the browser to determine whether the certificate belongs to a chain of certificates that it trusts.

In simple terms, a certificate provides a trusted binding between an identity and a public key.

For example, when you visit:

https://example.com

the server presents its certificate to the browser.

The browser can then check things such as:

• Is the certificate valid for example.com?
• Is the certificate still within its validity period?
• Does the certificate chain to a Certificate Authority that the browser trusts?
• Can the certificate chain be validated correctly?

If the relevant checks succeed, the certificate can be used as part of authenticating the server during the TLS handshake.

Public and private keys

The certificate contains the server’s public key. The server also has a corresponding private key, which is kept secret.

The public key can be shared openly. The private key must remain under the control of its owner.

During the TLS handshake, cryptographic mechanisms use the server’s certificate and private-key capabilities to authenticate the server and establish shared session keys between the browser and server.

The private key is never sent to the browser.

A simplified view is:

Certificate
    ↓
Contains public key
    ↓
Browser validates certificate
    ↓
TLS handshake
    ↓
Server authentication
+
Key establishment
    ↓
Shared session keys
    ↓
Protected HTTPS communication

The important distinction is that the certificate and its public/private key pair are primarily involved in authentication and key-establishment mechanisms, while the resulting session keys protect the actual application data.

The exact cryptographic methods depend on the TLS version and the negotiated algorithms. During the TLS handshake, the client and server perform cryptographic operations that allow the server to be authenticated and the necessary session keys to be established for the connection.

For an introductory understanding, the following mental model is enough:

Certificate
    ↓
Binds identity to a public key
    ↓
TLS authenticates the server
    +
establishes session keys
    ↓
Session keys protect the communication

HTTPS is only one use case

Websites are probably the most familiar example, but certificates are not limited to HTTPS.

The same basic concepts are also used for things such as:

• mTLS (mutual TLS) — both the client and server authenticate using certificates
• Application authentication — an application can prove its identity to another service
• Device authentication — devices can use certificates to identify themselves
• Digital signatures — certificates can help establish the identity associated with a public key used for a digital signature

For digital signatures, it is important to distinguish the certificate from the signature itself.

A certificate can bind an identity to a public key, while the corresponding private key is used to create a digital signature.

This is why certificates are important in many areas of modern IT, not just web browsers.

What a certificate does not do

It is also useful to understand what a certificate does not do.

A certificate does not:

• Encrypt all the data by itself
• Contain the server’s private key
• Guarantee that a website is trustworthy
• Guarantee that a website is free of malware, scams, or other security problems

For example, a malicious or phishing website can still use HTTPS and have a valid certificate.

A valid certificate primarily means that the certificate and identity checks required by the relevant trust system have succeeded. It does not mean that the website itself is honest, legitimate, or safe.

The basic mental model

At this point, the most important relationships to remember are:

HTTPS
  ↓
HTTP over TLS
  ↓
TLS authenticates peers
and establishes protected communication
  ↓
Certificates help establish identity
  ↓
Key exchange establishes session keys
  ↓
Session keys protect the HTTP data

And for the certificate itself:

Certificate
    ↓
Identity + public key
    ↓
Signed by a Certificate Authority
    ↓
Used during authentication

The certificate contains the server’s public key, but it does not contain the corresponding private key. The private key must be kept secret by its owner.

With this foundation, we can move on to a more detailed question:

What is actually inside a certificate?

What is a private key?

What is a CSR?

And why do we have files such as:

.pfx
.p12
.crt
.key
.pem
.csr

These are the topics of the next article:

Certificates and Certificate Files

In the next article, we will look at what certificates and keys actually contain, how they are created, how they relate to each other, and why the same certificate identity can appear in different file formats.

13 September 2026

End-to-End Encryption (E2EE) protects messages so that, under normal circumstances, only the sender and intended recipient can read them. The message is encrypted on the sender’s device and decrypted on the recipient’s device. The messaging server can deliver the encrypted message but cannot normally read its contents. Even so, E2EE has limits: it doesn’t hide all metadata, such as who you communicate with and when, and it cannot protect the message content if the device itself is compromised or if an unencrypted backup exposes the messages.

Encryption alone also can’t guarantee who is on the other end. In a Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) attack, an attacker tricks each person into believing that the attacker’s encryption key belongs to the other person. The attacker can then potentially decrypt, read, and re-encrypt messages passing between the two parties, while both users believe they are communicating securely.

This is where security numbers or safety numbers come in. Some E2EE messaging apps, such as WhatsApp and Signal, provide a unique number or code derived from the participants’ identity keys. By comparing the displayed number or code — ideally by scanning each other’s QR code in person or comparing it through another trusted channel — users can verify that the identity keys they are communicating with match the expected ones. This makes key substitution much harder to perform without being noticed.

Verification does not prevent a MITM attack by itself; rather, it helps detect an unexpected change in identity keys. If the security number suddenly changes, it may have a harmless explanation, such as a new phone or a reinstalled app, but it can also indicate that the identity key has changed and should be checked before trusting the new one. Some apps highlight key changes automatically and may require the change to be acknowledged before messaging continues. However, if users never verify their contacts, this can remain a significant weak point in practice.

In short, E2EE protects the message while it is being transmitted, while security-number verification helps confirm that the encrypted connection is actually with the right person, reducing the risk of a successful Man-in-the-Middle attack.

The same basic question comes up when we communicate securely on the web: how do we know who we’re actually communicating with? In messaging apps, security numbers help verify identity keys. With web connections, HTTPS, TLS, and digital certificates work together to provide encryption and help establish the identity of the server.

The next chapter looks at HTTPS, TLS, and certificates, and how these pieces work together to create a secure connection.

06 September 2026

Messaging apps such as WhatsApp and Signal use end-to-end encryption to protect private conversations. This means that messages are designed to be readable only by the sender and recipient. However, strong encryption does not protect users from every cybersecurity threat. Criminals can instead target accounts, devices, or users themselves through deception and social engineering.

Account Hijacking and Social Engineering

One of the biggest risks is account hijacking. Criminals may try to take control of a WhatsApp or Signal account and then use it to contact the victim’s friends, family, or colleagues. Because the messages come from a familiar account, people may be more likely to trust them.

Attackers often use social engineering, meaning they manipulate people into giving away information or taking an unsafe action. For example, they may pretend to be a friend, invite someone to a group, send a QR code, or claim that there is a problem with the user’s account.

Phishing and Verification-Code Scams

Phishing is another major threat. Criminals may send messages that look like they come from a messaging service and ask users to provide a verification code, PIN, or other security information.

Verification codes should never be shared with another person. If a criminal obtains a code, they may be able to register the victim’s phone number on another device and take control of the account.

SIM-Swap Attacks

A SIM-swap attack is another possible way to take over an account. In this type of attack, a criminal attempts to persuade a mobile operator to transfer a victim’s phone number to a SIM card controlled by the criminal.

If the attacker receives SMS verification codes, they may be able to register the victim’s messaging account on another device. This is why protecting the phone number and using additional security features are important.

Impersonation and Fraud

After taking over an account, criminals may pretend to be the real account owner. They can change the profile name or picture and contact people with messages designed to gain their trust.

The Finnish Cyber Security Centre has warned that hijacked messaging accounts can be used for fraud. A simple message such as asking how someone is doing can be the beginning of a longer social-engineering attempt.

Malicious Links

Criminals may also send links that lead to phishing websites or other harmful content. These messages can appear to come from friends or trusted contacts.

Users should be careful when opening unexpected links, especially when a message creates urgency or asks for passwords, verification codes, or other private information.

Unauthorized Linked Devices

Messaging apps can allow accounts to be connected to additional devices. If a criminal manages to connect an unknown device to an account, they may be able to access the account without immediately taking the phone from its owner.

Users should regularly check their list of linked devices and remove anything they do not recognize.

Impersonating a Messaging App’s Support Service

Another type of scam involves criminals pretending to be a messaging app’s support service. For example, the Finnish Cyber Security Centre has warned about phishing scams in which criminals impersonate Signal Support and try to obtain users’ 64-character recovery keys for Signal Secure Backups.

Signal Secure Backups are protected by end-to-end encryption, and the recovery key is controlled only by the user. Signal cannot use the key on the user’s behalf. Therefore, users should never give their recovery key to anyone claiming to represent Signal Support.

This example shows that even secure messaging applications can be targeted through social engineering. The encryption itself does not have to be broken if a user can be tricked into revealing important security information.

How to Protect Yourself

There are several ways to improve the security of messaging accounts:

• Never share verification codes, PINs, passwords, or recovery keys with anyone.
• Enable two-step verification or other additional account-protection features.
• Use a strong PIN and keep it private.
• Check linked devices regularly and remove unknown devices.
• Be careful with unexpected links, QR codes, and group invitations.
• Keep control of the phone number connected to the account.
• Limit who can see personal information and contact you when possible.
• If a friend’s account suddenly behaves strangely, verify the situation through another communication channel.

These steps can make it much harder for criminals to take control of an account or use it for fraud.

Conclusion

WhatsApp and Signal use strong encryption to protect messages, but users can still face cybersecurity risks. The biggest threats often come from social engineering, phishing, account hijacking, and unauthorized access rather than from breaking the encryption itself. Staying alert and using the available security features are therefore essential for keeping messaging accounts safe.

Short Summary

The main risks in messaging apps include account hijacking, phishing, SIM swapping, impersonation, malicious links, and unauthorized linked devices. Users can reduce these risks by protecting verification codes and recovery keys, enabling additional security features, and checking linked devices regularly.

References

Traficom / Finnish Cyber Security Centre. Pikaviestitilit kiinnostavat rikollisia, ota haltuun tärkeimmät suojautumiskeinot (2026).

Traficom / Finnish Cyber Security Centre

Traficom / Finnish Cyber Security Centre. Signal Support -teemaista kalastelua liikkeellä (2026).

Signal Support -teemaista kalastelua liikkeellä

26 August 2026

The use of artificial intelligence (AI) has grown significantly in recent years, both among individuals and businesses. This development has also introduced new challenges from a cybersecurity perspective, particularly for everyday users.

Scam Messages

AI can be used to quickly create more convincing emails, text messages, and other forms of communication. The language can be highly fluent and natural, making scams more difficult to identify based solely on spelling mistakes or unnatural wording.

Sharing Information with AI Services

Users may accidentally enter confidential information into an AI service, such as personal information, work-related information, passwords, or other sensitive data. By doing so, the user is providing information to an external service provider for processing, without necessarily fully understanding how that information is handled, stored, or used. If confidential information ends up in the wrong hands, it could lead to privacy violations, scams, identity theft, or the disclosure of confidential information belonging to an employer.

Users should therefore always think carefully about what information they share online, regardless of whether they are using a traditional web service or an AI service.

The Reliability of AI-Generated Information

AI-generated information can appear convincing even when it contains errors or is entirely incorrect. It can be difficult for users to identify such errors, particularly when they have little prior knowledge or expertise on the subject. On the other hand, a user’s own knowledge and expertise can help them assess the reliability of AI-generated information and identify potential errors.

For this reason, AI-generated answers should be treated critically, and important information should, whenever possible, be verified using reliable sources.

Using AI Services Safely

When using AI services, it is a good idea to follow the same basic principles that apply to other online services. Avoid unnecessarily entering personal information, passwords, work-related information, or other confidential data into AI services.

Users should also critically evaluate AI-generated responses rather than automatically assuming they are correct. Important information should, in particular, be verified using reliable sources. A user’s own knowledge and expertise can be valuable when assessing the reliability of AI-generated information and identifying potential errors.

Emails and other messages should also be treated with caution, as AI-generated scam messages can be more convincing than those created in the past.

Summary

AI offers users many useful opportunities, but its use also introduces new risks related to cybersecurity, privacy, and the reliability of information. For everyday users, the key is to carefully consider what information they share with AI services and other online services, remain cautious when receiving messages, and critically evaluate information generated by AI.

There is no need to avoid AI, but using it safely requires good judgment, critical thinking, and making use of your own knowledge and expertise.

12 August 2026

Browser extensions are small software add-ons that add new features and functionality to a web browser. They allow you to customize your browser to suit your needs without modifying the browser itself.

Although extensions can be useful, they should only be installed when there is a genuine need for them. Every additional extension can increase the browser’s security risks.

Common uses include, for example:

• Blocking advertisements, tracking tools, and malicious content (e.g. uBlock Origin)
• Password management and automatic filling of strong passwords
• Grammar and spell checking
• Translating web pages

Browser Extensions and Security

Browser extensions integrate with web browsers (such as Chrome, Edge, or Firefox) and operate as part of the browser. Although they are useful and widely used, they can also pose a security risk.

Extensions may request access to browser functions and data. Depending on the permissions granted, they may be able to access, for example, browsing history, cookies, web page content, or login information. However, not all extensions require extensive permissions. Grant permissions only when they are necessary for the extension to function.

For this reason, it is important to install only trusted extensions and carefully review the permissions you grant them.

Browser Extension Security Tips for Home Users

1. Install Only the Extensions You Need

Keep the number of installed browser extensions as small as possible.

Remove extensions that you no longer use.

2. Download Extensions Only from Official Stores

Install extensions only from your browser’s official extension store, such as:

• Google Chrome Web Store
• Microsoft Edge Add-ons
• Mozilla Firefox Add-ons
• Safari Extensions (App Store)

3. Check the Extension Developer

Before installing an extension:

• Check who developed the extension.
• Prefer well-known and reputable developers.
• Be cautious if there is very little information available about the developer.

4. Check the Requested Permissions

Carefully review the permissions an extension requests before installing it.

Ask yourself, for example:

• Does an ad blocker really need access to all of my data?
• Does a calculator extension really need permission to read all the websites I visit?

If the requested permissions seem unnecessarily broad, consider using another extension.

5. Manage Permissions

Most modern browsers allow you to manage extension permissions even after installation.

For example, you may be able to allow an extension to operate:

• Only when clicked
• On specific websites
• On all websites

Give an extension only the permissions it genuinely needs.

6. Read User Reviews Carefully

Reviews can provide useful information, but you should not rely solely on star ratings. Pay particular attention to:

• Recent reviews
• Reports of bugs or privacy issues
• Complaints related to recent updates

7. Keep Extensions Up to Date

Updates often fix security vulnerabilities.

Enable automatic updates for your browser whenever possible.

8. Remove Unused Extensions

Even if you do not actively use an extension, it may still have access to browser data and increase your security risk.

Review your installed extensions every few months and remove any that are no longer necessary.

9. Monitor for Changes and Unusual Activity

An extension’s security can change over time, for example, after a change of ownership or a change in the development team. An extension may also start requesting additional permissions following an update.

Disable or completely remove an extension if you notice, for example:

• Unexpected advertisements
• Browser redirects
• The browser becoming unusually slow
• New tabs opening automatically
• The extension requesting unusual permissions after an update

10. Protect Your Personal Data

Do not keep unnecessary or untrusted extensions installed in your browser. If you do not trust the extensions installed in your browser, remove them before using online banking or other services that handle sensitive or personal information.

11. Be Careful with AI-Powered Extensions

An increasing number of browser extensions use artificial intelligence for tasks such as writing, translation, or generating summaries.

Do not enter passwords, personal identity numbers, payment card details, confidential company information, or other sensitive information into AI-powered extensions unless there is a specifically approved way to process such information.

12. Keep Work and Personal Use Separate

If you use a work computer or browser, install browser extensions only in accordance with your employer’s or organization’s policies. In a work environment, extensions can also affect the security of the organization.

13. Use Security Software

Keep your operating system, web browser, and any security software up to date. Also make use of the security features built into your operating system.

Regular updates fix security vulnerabilities and reduce the risks posed by malware and other security threats.

Summary

Browser extensions can make using a web browser smoother, safer, and more efficient. At the same time, they can pose a security risk if they are untrusted, unnecessary, or granted overly broad permissions.

The most important principles for safe use are:

• Install only extensions that you genuinely need.
• Always download extensions from your browser’s official extension store.
• Check the developer, user reviews, and requested permissions before installing an extension.
• Keep your browser and extensions up to date.
• Remove unused or suspicious extensions.

By following these basic guidelines, you can take advantage of the features offered by browser extensions more safely while reducing security and privacy risks.

Updated 12 August 2026

Smartphones generally use two different PIN codes, and both are important for security:

• Device PIN / passcode (used to unlock the phone)
• SIM PIN (protects the SIM card)

It is highly recommended to set both PIN codes and make sure they are separate and unique. Never use the same code for both.

Secure Smartphone Use

To ensure safer smartphone use, you should:

• Set a device PIN code
• Enable biometric authentication, such as fingerprint or facial recognition (if available)
• Change the default SIM PIN, which is often something simple, such as 0000 or 1234

A good security practice is to use a PIN code of at least 6 digits for both the phone and the SIM card and make sure that the codes are different.

Why Strong PIN Codes and Biometrics Matter

Smartphones are widely used to access sensitive services, such as:

• online banking
• strong electronic identification
• email account recovery
• payment applications
• government and healthcare services
• two-factor authentication (SMS messages or authentication apps)

If someone gains access to your unlocked phone, they may potentially be able to:

• reset email passwords using recovery links
• access authentication codes
• view saved passwords
• log in to digital services

A weak PIN code can therefore provide a gateway to identity theft and complete account takeover.

SIM PIN Protection

A SIM PIN is separate from the phone’s device passcode but provides an important additional layer of security. Its purpose is to prevent the SIM card from being used without the PIN code.

When SIM PIN protection is enabled:

• The SIM card cannot be used in another phone without entering the PIN code
• The phone requests the PIN whenever the device is restarted or the SIM card is inserted into a device
• Repeatedly entering the wrong PIN locks the SIM card, after which a PUK code is required to unlock it

Without a SIM PIN, the SIM card can be used freely in any phone. This can create risks if the SIM card falls into the wrong hands:

• receiving SMS messages and phone calls
• receiving one-time login codes (SMS-based two-factor authentication)
• resetting passwords for services linked to the phone number

This could potentially provide access to, for example:

• email accounts
• social media accounts
• cloud services and other services linked to the phone number

Summary

Using a strong and unique PIN code of at least 6 digits for both the phone and the SIM card, together with biometric authentication, significantly improves digital security. It helps protect both your device and your personal identity and online accounts.

12 August 2026

SIM swapping, also known as SIM card swap fraud, is a serious cybersecurity threat in which an attacker transfers a victim’s phone number to a SIM card under their control by impersonating the legitimate owner of the number. As a result, from the mobile network’s perspective, the attacker gains control of the victim’s phone number.

Once an attacker has control of the phone number, they may be able to receive, for example:

• SMS verification codes
• Password reset messages
• Calls and text messages sent to the number
• Email account recovery codes

This makes SIM swapping particularly dangerous because many services use phone numbers for authentication or account recovery. SIM swapping can allow attackers to take over SMS-based two-factor authentication (SMS 2FA) and account recovery processes.

For this reason, SMS-based authentication is generally considered weaker than authenticator apps or physical security keys.

SIM swapping often occurs through social engineering. The attacker contacts the mobile operator and impersonates the legitimate owner of the phone number, claiming, for example, that they have lost their phone, that their SIM card has stopped working, or that they have purchased a new phone. If customer service is convinced by the attacker, the phone number is transferred to a new SIM card under the attacker’s control.

The attack is made easier when criminals already have access to the victim’s personal information, such as their name, address, date of birth, phone number, leaked passwords, or information related to their national identification number. Such information can be obtained through data breaches, phishing, malware, or information collected from social media.

Preventing SIM swapping requires both precautions by the user and security measures provided by the mobile operator. Users should protect their mobile operator account with a strong password and, where available, enable two-factor authentication.

In addition, SMS-based two-factor authentication should be replaced whenever possible, as it is vulnerable to SIM-swapping attacks. A safer alternative is to use authenticator apps, such as Google Authenticator, Authy, or Proton Authenticator, which generate verification codes directly on the device without relying on the phone number for authentication.

For particularly important accounts, such as email accounts, physical security keys such as YubiKey can be recommended, as they provide very strong protection against threats such as SIM swapping and phishing. For most users, however, an authenticator app is already a sufficiently secure option and is clearly safer than SMS verification.

Users should also limit the public visibility of their personal information. For example, information such as date of birth, address, phone number, or details that could be used as answers to security questions should not be shared publicly on social media. Attackers can use such information for identity impersonation and social engineering.

A potential SIM-swapping attack should be addressed quickly. If a phone suddenly loses mobile network connectivity without an obvious reason, it could indicate that the phone number has been transferred to another SIM card. In such a situation, the mobile operator should be contacted immediately, and the passwords for important accounts should be changed as quickly as possible.

A secure practical approach is to use the SIM card primarily for calls and mobile data, store passwords in a password manager, make use of the security measures provided by the mobile operator, use authenticator apps for two-factor authentication, and store account recovery codes securely in an offline location.

When SMS verification is completely replaced with security keys or authenticator apps, the impact of SIM swapping is significantly reduced because login codes are no longer dependent on the phone number.

Updated August 9, 2026

For all user accounts, including social media accounts, it is important to review the available security and privacy settings. Limit the visibility of your personal information and avoid publicly sharing unnecessary details such as your home address, phone number, or date of birth.

Be cautious with friend requests from people you do not know. They may come from scammers or advertising bots, so the safest approach is not to accept requests from strangers. You should also think carefully about what you share online, as removing photos once they have been published can be difficult.

If you want to reduce the risk of account takeovers, data breaches, tracking, and long-term exposure, the following practices can help protect your information.

Password Manager

One of the most important security measures is using a password manager. It allows you to create long, unique passwords for every service without having to remember them yourself. Examples include Proton Pass, KeePassXC, and Bitwarden.

Use a different password for every service. Passwords should ideally be at least 16–20 randomly generated characters long.

Basic Account Security

Enable multi-factor authentication (MFA) on all important services, especially email, password managers, and social media accounts.

The most secure option is a physical security key, such as a YubiKey. The next best option is an authenticator app. SMS codes should only be used when more secure alternatives are not available.

Email Security

Email is often used as a recovery channel for other accounts, making it particularly important to protect. Use a strong, unique password and enable MFA.

Store recovery codes offline and keep your recovery email addresses and phone numbers up to date. Also check your email forwarding rules regularly.

Privacy Settings and Social Media

Limit the visibility of your social media profiles. Make your profile private, hide your friends and followers lists, and restrict who can find you using your email address or phone number.

Disable unnecessary contact syncing and precise location sharing, and limit ad personalization. Also make sure you use a strong password and enable two-factor authentication.

You should also review your phone’s app permissions regularly. Prevent apps that do not need them from accessing your location, microphone, or camera, and restrict unnecessary Bluetooth access and background activity. Reviewing app permissions, for example once a month, is a good practice.

Separating Identities

Using different email addresses for different purposes can reduce the impact of data breaches, profiling, and tracking. You can use separate addresses for banking, personal communication, online shopping, social media, newsletters, and other registrations.

Email alias services can also help protect your primary email address.

Browser Privacy and Security

One way to improve browsing privacy is to use a so-called privacy-focused browser (such as Firefox or Brave). Enable HTTPS-Only mode, DNS over HTTPS, third-party cookie blocking, and strict tracking protection where supported.

Clear your browsing history and cache regularly. If your browser supports it, you can also configure it to automatically delete your browsing history when you close the browser.

Use a dedicated password manager instead of relying on the browser’s built-in password manager. Keep the number of browser extensions to a minimum and use only trusted and widely used extensions.

Device Security

Keep your operating systems, browsers, apps, password manager, and router firmware up to date. Updates often fix security vulnerabilities that attackers could otherwise exploit.

Use a sufficiently strong device passcode. Avoid short four-digit PINs and pattern locks. A longer PIN or a password containing both letters and numbers is a better option.

Network Security

Avoid using public Wi-Fi networks for sensitive activities. When necessary, use mobile data and make sure the connection is protected by HTTPS. A trusted VPN service can provide an additional layer of protection.

Secure your home router by changing the default administrator password, keeping its firmware up to date, and using WPA3 encryption or at least WPA2/WPA3 encryption. Disable WPS and, where possible, place IoT devices on a separate guest network.

Protection Against Phishing

Phishing is one of the most common ways attackers steal account credentials. Keep these basic rules in mind:

• Do not log in to important services through links in emails or messages.
• Check domain names carefully.
• Do not let urgency or fear pressure you into taking action.
• Verify suspicious requests through another communication channel.
• Type the addresses of important services into your browser yourself or use saved bookmarks.

Recovery Plan

Store important recovery information securely and, where possible, offline. This may include MFA backup codes, your password manager recovery key, account recovery or emergency recovery codes, important emergency contact information, and recovery codes for encryption keys.

Suitable storage options include a paper copy kept in a secure location or an encrypted USB drive that is not permanently connected to a computer.

Additional Protection for High-Risk Users

If your security requirements are higher than usual, consider additional security measures. These may include physical security keys, separating work and personal devices, using a dedicated browser for banking, keeping your social media presence to a minimum, and using encrypted communication.

Key Actions at a Glance

• Use a password manager.
• Use a unique password for every service.
• Enable MFA on important accounts.
• Protect your email especially well.
• Keep devices and software up to date.
• Use ad and tracking blockers.
• Restrict app permissions.
• Learn how to recognize phishing.
• Keep important recovery information stored securely.

Online security does not come from a single setting or tool. The best protection comes from several small, consistent practices that reduce both technical and human risks.

11 August 2026

Messaging apps have become an essential part of everyday communication. They are used to send messages, photos, and videos, as well as to make voice and video calls. Compared with traditional SMS messaging, messaging apps offer many more features and can also provide better protection for the content of messages.

One of the most important security features is end-to-end encryption. Its purpose is to protect the content of a message so that only the people communicating with each other can read it. However, encryption does not mean that all information related to the communication is invisible to the service provider.

Encryption Does Not Protect Everything

In addition to message content, services may process various types of metadata. Depending on the service, this may include information about the user account, device, or use of the service. Therefore, when evaluating the privacy of a messaging app, it is also important to consider what information the service collects and how that information is handled.

Backups are another important part of the overall picture. Even if messages are end-to-end encrypted during a conversation, the protection applied to backups may work differently. If conversations contain sensitive information, it is worth considering whether those messages need to be stored in a cloud service at all.

The Biggest Risk May Be the User

Strong technical encryption does not prevent scams. Messaging apps can also be used to distribute phishing messages, malicious links and files, as well as messages designed to trick users into revealing verification codes or other sensitive information.

Unexpected messages should therefore be treated with the same caution as suspicious emails: if something seems unusual or suspicious, do not open the link or provide any personal information. It is particularly important to remember that verification codes should never be shared with anyone, even if the sender claims to be a friend, family member, or representative of a service provider.

Your Phone Needs Protection Too

The security of a messaging app provides limited protection if the phone itself is not properly secured. A strong passcode, automatic device locking, biometric authentication, and keeping the operating system and apps up to date are simple but effective ways to improve security.

It is also worth reviewing app permissions. Not every app needs access to contacts, location data, or other information stored on the device.

Security Is a Combination of Factors

When choosing a messaging app, it is not enough to focus on a single feature. End-to-end encryption is an important security measure, but the service’s privacy policies, handling of metadata, backup security, account protection, and the user’s own behavior are equally important.

Ultimately, secure communication depends on several factors. Using an up-to-date app, keeping the phone properly secured, and making careful decisions when using messaging services can help prevent many common communication-related security risks.

In Conclusion

There are many different messaging apps available today, including WhatsApp, Signal, Telegram, and Threema. Their features, security measures, and privacy practices differ, so when choosing an app, it is worth reviewing its current security and privacy settings.

However, no app can guarantee complete security on its own. Secure communication is a combination of technical security measures, a properly protected device, and responsible user behavior.

Updated August 09, 2026

Good cybersecurity and sound security practices ultimately come down to one thing: people. Just as the greatest risk factor in driving is the driver – the person sitting behind the wheel – the greatest risk factor in cybersecurity can also be the person using the device.

To reduce cybersecurity risks and prevent scams, it is important to recognize the human, non-technical factors that can contribute to security incidents. Anyone can fall victim to phishing and scams, even when multiple technical security measures are in place. Cybersecurity awareness helps, but it does not necessarily change the way we think, feel, and act in certain situations.

Key non-technical reasons why people fall for scams

• Exploiting emotions. Phishing messages are designed to trigger a sense of urgency, fear, curiosity, or excitement. Messages such as “Your account will be locked in one hour” or “You have won a prize” create pressure to take action. Under emotional pressure, people often react quickly, leaving less room for careful consideration.
• Time pressure and mental load. When people are busy, multitasking, or stressed, rational thinking and judgment can suffer. Clicking quickly may feel easier than checking the details. For example, booking a trip in a hurry can lead to an untrustworthy website.
• Trust in authority and familiarity. Cyber attackers often impersonate trusted entities such as banks, colleagues, managers, or well-known brands. Because people are conditioned to trust authority figures and familiar names, even experienced users may follow instructions automatically.
• Habits and routines. People deal with dozens or even hundreds of emails and messages every day. This can lead to “autopilot behavior”: open → scan → click. Phishing can succeed when it blends into these ordinary daily routines.
• Attitudes. People may think, “It won’t happen to me” or “I already know enough.” They simply do not believe they are likely to encounter a scam.
• Overreliance on technology and security fatigue. People may assume that technical platforms – such as email services, messaging apps, or social media platforms – automatically filter out scam messages. At the same time, constant warnings about different threats can lead to cybersecurity fatigue. When this happens, people may switch to autopilot mode, clicking links or responding to messages without taking the time to analyze them carefully.

Simple rules can help reduce human-related risks

The risks caused by human factors can be reduced with a few simple rules of thumb:

• Treat all messages with a critical eye, especially if they urge you to act quickly or urgently.
• Do not make decisions under pressure, whether you are booking a trip, shopping online, or paying a bill.
• Trust your instincts: if something feels even slightly suspicious, do not click the link or proceed to the website. Always verify the sender or the website before taking action.
• Think first, act second.

Not everything in cybersecurity can be solved with technology. One of the most effective security measures is simply to pause for a moment and think before taking action.

August 08, 2026

Have you ever used a public Wi-Fi network at a café, hotel, or airport and wondered how secure your connection really is? A VPN, or Virtual Private Network, is one way to improve the privacy and security of your internet connection.

A VPN creates an encrypted connection between your device and a VPN server. It can also hide your IP address from online services, so those services see the VPN server’s IP address instead of your own.

However, it is worth noting that a large portion of internet traffic is already encrypted, for example through HTTPS. A VPN is therefore not the only layer of protection for your online traffic, and it does not make you completely anonymous.

How Does a VPN Work?

• When you connect to a VPN service, your device establishes an encrypted connection to a VPN server.
• Your internet traffic is routed through the VPN server.
• When the VPN is working normally, online services see the VPN server’s IP address instead of your own.
• However, the VPN provider may still be able to see certain connection metadata, which is why choosing a trustworthy provider and reviewing its privacy practices is important.

Why Use a VPN?

There are several reasons why you might want to use a VPN. Some of the most common include:

• A VPN reduces your internet service provider’s visibility into your browsing activity because your traffic is routed through an encrypted VPN connection.
• A VPN provides an additional layer of protection when using public or otherwise untrusted Wi-Fi networks.
• Online services see the VPN server’s IP address instead of your own when the VPN is working normally.
• A VPN can improve your privacy and security, particularly when you are unsure how trustworthy or secure the network you are using is.

An Important Consideration When Choosing a VPN

It is important to choose a trustworthy VPN provider because the provider routes your internet traffic to the internet. Providers differ in their privacy policies, data collection practices, and overall security.

You should also carefully review the terms of service and privacy policy of free VPN services before using them. A free service is not necessarily a bad service, but it is worth understanding how it operates and how the service is funded.

A VPN Does Not Protect You from Everything

A VPN does not protect you from viruses or malware. The main purposes of a VPN are to protect your network traffic and improve your online privacy. Protecting yourself from malware requires other measures, such as keeping your operating system and applications up to date, being cautious with suspicious links and files, and using antivirus software when appropriate.

A VPN also does not make you completely anonymous. For example, websites can identify and track users through cookies, login information, and other browser-based identifiers.

Conclusion

A VPN can be a useful tool for improving your online privacy and security. It encrypts the connection between your device and the VPN server and hides your IP address from online services. However, a VPN does not solve every internet security problem and does not replace other basic security practices.

When choosing a VPN service, pay particular attention to the provider’s reputation, privacy policy, and what information it collects about its users.

Updated: August 06, 2026

Your router is one of the most important components of your home’s cybersecurity. Every internet-connected device in your home—including smartphones, tablets, computers, smart TVs, and other Internet of Things (IoT) devices—accesses the internet through it.

The router manages traffic between your home network and the internet while protecting your devices through Network Address Translation (NAT). To the outside world, only the router’s public IP address is visible, not the IP addresses of individual devices on your home network. This makes it much more difficult for attackers to target your devices directly.

Modern routers also provide a firewall and other built-in security features. They can block malicious network traffic and help protect your entire home network, even if it contains devices from different manufacturers with varying levels of built-in security.

However, a router is only as secure as its software. To remain secure, it should be a relatively recent model that is still supported by the manufacturer and receives regular security updates.

An outdated router poses a significant cybersecurity risk because it can expose every device connected to your home network. Attackers may be able to intercept network traffic, redirect users to fraudulent phishing websites, or spread malware to connected devices. Vulnerable routers can also be recruited into botnets, allowing cybercriminals to use them—without the owner’s knowledge—to carry out activities such as distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks.

Checklist for a More Secure Home Network

Many of the following settings can be configured through your router’s web-based management interface. For detailed instructions, refer to your router’s user manual.

Essential Security Measures

• Change the router’s default administrator password to a strong, unique password.
• Disable remote management unless you specifically need it.
• Make sure your router is still supported by the manufacturer and receives automatic security updates.

Additional Security Recommendations

If you are unsure about changing these settings, ask someone with networking experience to help.

• Enable WPA3 encryption, or at least WPA2/WPA3 mixed mode. WPA3 provides the strongest Wi-Fi security and should be used whenever all devices on your network support it.
• Create a separate guest network for visitors and, if appropriate, for IoT devices such as smart TVs. Isolating less secure devices helps protect your computers and other sensitive devices from potential attacks.
• Disable WPS and UPnP. WPS (Wi-Fi Protected Setup) allows devices to connect to your Wi-Fi network without entering the password, but it is generally considered less secure and is no longer recommended. UPnP (Universal Plug and Play) allows devices to automatically open ports in your router’s firewall, which can introduce unnecessary security risks.
• Choose a neutral Wi-Fi network name (SSID). Avoid using information that could reveal your identity, address, or the model of your router.
• Restart your router regularly. A periodic reboot can help install updates, clear temporary issues, and terminate potentially malicious connections.

Updated: August 04, 2026

Managing your finances online is part of everyday life, and when done correctly, it is a safe and convenient way to bank. However, online scams are becoming increasingly sophisticated, and criminals are constantly developing new ways to steal banking credentials and personal information.

Remember the most important rule: your bank will never ask for your online banking credentials, security codes, or ask you to approve a login via text message, email, phone call, or messaging apps.

Here are some practical tips to help keep your money and personal information safe.

1. Access your online bank securely

Never access your online bank through a search engine result. Instead, type your bank’s web address directly into your browser’s address bar or use your bank’s official mobile app.

Once you’ve entered the correct address, save it as a bookmark and always use that bookmark when accessing your online bank.

2. Recognize phishing attempts

Scam messages are often designed to look genuine. Watch out for these common warning signs.

Links asking you to log in or update your information

If you receive a message asking you to log in to your online bank, update your personal information, or cancel a payment by clicking a link, do not click the link. Banks do not send login requests or ask customers to verify their identity via text messages, emails, phone calls, or messaging apps. It is a scam.

Unexpected approval requests

Never approve a login, payment, or other transaction that you did not initiate yourself. Always read carefully what your banking app or authentication app is asking you to approve.

Creating a sense of urgency

Scammers often try to pressure you into acting quickly by claiming that your account will be closed, a payment has failed, or your information has expired. Creating a sense of urgency is one of the most common signs of fraud.

3. Use your bank’s security features

Most banks provide tools that help improve your account security:

• Use your bank’s official mobile app whenever possible.
• Set daily withdrawal and payment limits on your cards and accounts. If someone gains access to your account, the potential financial loss will be limited.
• Restrict where your payment card can be used, for example by allowing transactions only in your home country. You can easily expand the geographical area when travelling abroad.
• Always verify that the transaction reference or login code shown in your authentication app matches the action you are about to approve.

4. Keep your devices secure

When accessing online banking on a computer, always use your own user account. Avoid logging in from shared or public computers.

For additional security, consider using a dedicated web browser exclusively for online banking. Keeping your operating system and software up to date and using reputable security software is also recommended, especially on Windows computers.

What to do if you suspect a scam

If you believe you may have been targeted by a scam, act immediately:

• End the phone call or other communication if something feels suspicious.
• Contact your bank immediately if you have disclosed your banking credentials or logged in through a suspicious link.
• Report the incident to the police if you have become a victim of fraud.

Remember

Your online banking credentials are much more than just a way to access your bank account. They are also used as your digital signature and to securely verify your identity when accessing many government and private online services.

Treat your online banking credentials with the same care as your passport or handwritten signature—never share them with anyone.

Updated: 16 August 2026

Finland offers several secure methods of strong digital authentication, enabling citizens to safely access banking, government, healthcare, insurance, and many other online services.

Strong digital authentication is the process of securely verifying a person’s identity when accessing online services. Its purpose is to ensure that the person logging in is genuinely who they claim to be.

In Finland, strong digital authentication is based on at least two independent authentication factors.

Before strong digital authentication can be used, a person’s identity must first be verified by a trusted organization, such as a bank, a mobile network operator, or a government authority. After this initial identity verification, authentication factors such as a PIN, fingerprint, facial recognition, or a registered mobile device can be used to prove that the same person is logging in.

Authentication factors typically fall into three categories:

• Something you know – such as a password or PIN.
• Something you have – such as a smartphone with a Mobile Certificate or a digital identity certificate.
• Something you are – such as your fingerprint or facial recognition.

Strong digital authentication always combines at least two authentication factors, providing a much higher level of security than using a password alone.

Strong Digital Authentication Methods in Finland

The three primary methods of strong digital authentication in Finland are:

• Online Banking Credentials
• Mobile Certificate (SIM card-based authentication)
• The Citizen Certificate stored on a Finnish identity card (for example, using the Hightrust.id application)

Online Banking Credentials

Online Banking Credentials are by far the most widely used method of strong digital authentication in Finland.

When opening a bank account, the bank first verifies your identity using an official identity document, such as a passport or national identity card. Once your identity has been confirmed, the bank issues your Online Banking Credentials, which can then be used to access thousands of public and private online services across Finland.

Users authenticate by entering their Online Banking Credentials and confirming the login using their bank’s mobile application or a security code. Many banks also support biometric authentication, such as fingerprint or facial recognition, within their mobile applications.

Online Banking Credentials provide a highly secure authentication method—as long as you are logging in through the official website or mobile application of your bank or another trusted service.

Never enter your Online Banking Credentials after clicking a link in an email, text message, or other unsolicited communication. Fraudulent websites can steal your credentials, potentially leading to identity theft and financial loss.

Mobile Certificate

The Mobile Certificate has become increasingly popular in Finland in recent years. It can be used to access a wide range of public sector services as well as many insurance and financial services.

Before a Mobile Certificate is issued, your mobile network operator verifies your identity. The certificate is then securely stored on your SIM card, allowing you to authenticate yourself without using your Online Banking Credentials.

Because it is independent of your Online Banking Credentials, the Mobile Certificate provides a secure and convenient alternative for strong digital authentication.

Citizen Certificate

A third method of strong digital authentication uses the Citizen Certificate stored on the chip of a Finnish identity card.

Before the identity card is issued, your identity is verified by the Finnish authorities. The Citizen Certificate embedded in the card’s chip is therefore securely linked to your verified identity.

This method requires:

• A valid Finnish identity card with a Citizen Certificate.
• Hightrust.id, a mobile application that enables strong digital authentication by securely reading the Citizen Certificate stored on the identity card using your smartphone’s NFC reader.

After the certificate has been read, future authentications can be confirmed using your phone’s built-in security, such as:

• Your device PIN
• Fingerprint authentication
• Facial recognition

At present, Citizen Certificate authentication is primarily available for accessing Finnish public administration services.

Why Use Alternatives to Online Banking Credentials?

Both the Mobile Certificate and the Citizen Certificate reduce the need to use your Online Banking Credentials when signing in to digital services.

This lowers the risk of exposing your banking credentials through phishing attacks or fraudulent websites. Even if another online service were compromised, your Online Banking Credentials would remain protected because they were never used.

Best Practice

Whenever possible, use your Online Banking Credentials only for online banking services.

For government services, healthcare, insurance companies, and other digital services, consider using the Mobile Certificate or Citizen Certificate (for example, through Hightrust.id) instead.

If Online Banking Credentials are your only available authentication method, always verify that you are using the official website or mobile application before entering your credentials.

Final Thoughts

Finland has one of the world’s most advanced digital identity ecosystems, offering several methods of strong digital authentication that are both secure and convenient.

While Online Banking Credentials remain the most widely used authentication method, the Mobile Certificate and Citizen Certificate provide excellent alternatives that help reduce the risk of credential theft. By choosing the most appropriate authentication method for each service, you can significantly improve your online security while enjoying seamless access to digital services.

Choosing the right authentication method not only makes online services more convenient but also reduces the risk of phishing, identity theft, and unauthorized access to your personal accounts. As digital services continue to expand, understanding and using strong digital authentication is one of the most effective ways to protect your digital identity.

Updated: 30 August 2026

The importance of using unique usernames is often overlooked compared with the importance of using strong, unique passwords. It is still very common to use the same username or email address across different services. While this is convenient, it is not necessarily the best approach from a privacy and security perspective.

It is important to understand that a username is not necessarily the same thing as an email address. Some services allow you to choose your own username or nickname, while others use an email address as the username or login identifier.

Using an email address that clearly reveals your identity across multiple services can make it easier to link different accounts to the same person. If the same identifier appears across several services, it may be easier for someone to determine which accounts potentially belong to the same individual.

Whenever possible, use unique usernames or nicknames for different services. Avoid using an identifiable email address as your username across as many different services as possible.

A unique username does not by itself prevent accounts from being linked or protect an account from a data breach. However, it can make it more difficult to connect accounts from different services to the same person. For example, if a service suffers a data breach, a unique username does not reveal as readily that the same identifier is also being used on other services.

It is particularly worth considering unique usernames for important and critical accounts, such as email services, cloud services, and Apple, Google, and Microsoft accounts.

With Google and Microsoft accounts, however, it is worth noting that email addresses, aliases, and account usernames can be related to each other in different ways. For example, multiple email addresses, or aliases, can be added to a Microsoft account. These aliases belong to the same Microsoft account and can be used, for example, to sign in.

If a service allows you to use a separate username, it is preferable to use that instead of an identifiable email address. With Google and Microsoft accounts, it is also worth avoiding unnecessary use of the same identifiable email address or alias as a username across as many other services as possible.

Using email aliases is a practical way to improve privacy and make it easier to manage the email addresses associated with different services without having to create entirely new email accounts.

For example, SimpleLogin and Firefox Relay are services that allow you to create service-specific email aliases. This allows you to use different email addresses for different services while managing them centrally.

In Short

Whenever possible, use unique usernames for different services and avoid using the same identifiable email address everywhere. Consider using email aliases when you want to make it more difficult to link your accounts across different services without having to create new email accounts.